A comparative study of popular religiosity in Buddhism and Catholicism

The reason for a licentiate thesis
From the moment of my arrival in Korea eight years ago, one of the things that struck me when visiting a Catholic church or a Buddhist temple was the fact that the majority of the people in those places were women, and that the men were rather few. I asked myself why, and I reflected on it. Another fact that impressed me was the great devotion of the Korean Catholics towards Mother Mary. In most parishes, the most active and numerous groups are the Marian groups, especially the Legion of Mary. I was also surprised to see that among the Buddhists too, especially among the women, there is a great devotion towards Bodisatva Kwanum. In their temples too, the most active and numerous groups are dedicated *to "her". In Eastern Asia, this Bodisatva has an external look very similar to Mary, and even more so in the way they understand "her". For example, during times of persecution, Japanese Catholics kept on practicing their Marian devotion while addressing themselves to the image of Kwanum, so as not to be identified as Catholics, and thus they were able to continue practicing their faith.
After my first four years of study of the Korean language and pastoral work among the poor of the suburb of Inchon, I began studying oriental religions at the university. When I finished my studies, I had to write a thesis. I thought it would be good to write it on a comparison between these two devotions. My specialty was popular religiosity and Shamanism, but I wanted to study in depth the way the common people in Korea express their faith and their beliefs.
Keeping in mind that the majority of the active practicing believers in Buddhism and in Catholicism were women, and that the most rooted devotion was, respectively, devotion to Kwanum and to Mary, I decided that this theme could be the object of my research.
Method of research
I chose the anthropological method of field research plus the use of written materials that had been prepared by the two religious traditions. Then, looking at the work in a global way, we can basically divide it into two sections. The first one analyzes the written sources produced by Buddhist and Christian scriptures, and also the historical sources of these two traditions. The second one examines the data I collected during a year and a half in various Buddhist temples and in Catholic churches.
Subdivision of the thesis
Back to the content of my thesis: after a brief introduction in which I point out the problems and the objectives of my research, I present the method of research used. As I already mentioned, it is based on the anthropological method proposed by Clifford Geertz, which I adapted by using diverse elements relative to feminine hermeneutics: the latter endeavors to discover new methods of interpretation more appropriate to the feminine vision of
This research allowed me to reach my conclusion on the main cultural and religious elements that characterize the popular religiosity of the Korean woman. While doing my research, I visited various Buddhist temples dedicated especially to the devotion to Kwanum, and during a period of three months I participated in the weekly meetings of a group of women in a temple of the city of Puchon. The latter group’s main activity was the study of the Buddhist scriptures. I believe that this participation of mine was one of the most important experiences of my study. It made me understand my role of researcher and the difficulties inherent in the usage of the anthropological method proposed by Clifford Geertz, "from the native point of view". My effort in the field research was to look at the Marian devotion and the devotion to Kwanum form the angle of those who were the object of my research, i.e., from the standpoint of the Korean woman. However, this was not an easy work, since I am a man, a stranger and also a Catholic priest. There were very few elements in common when I did my research among the Buddhist women in the ^Buddhist temples. In any case, the attempt to let myself become the "object" of my research, although I recognized my role as "a guest and as a foreigner", was a very enriching experience. While visiting and participating in the meetings of Buddhist and Catholic groups, I had the opportunity to talk with and interview a good number of believers of the two religions on their devotion to Kwanum and Mary respectively. The results of these interviews are found in the last part of my work.
reality, a reality that is looked at more as a process than as dialectics, a method which underlines especially continuity and reconciliation.
I continue afterwards with an analysis of the most important images of Kwanum in the Buddhist scriptures. These images present Kwanum as the bodisatva that fully concretizes the wisdom and puts into practice the "nothing". The most meaningful image and the most mentioned in Buddhist scripture is, probably, the one of Kwanum in "her" role of savior of the human beings who cry as they ask for help and liberation from sorrow. It is "She" who is presented as the one that helps the human beings who ask for help to reach "nirvana". In the Buddhist tradition of the Pure Land (Pure Land Buddhism), Kwanum is the bodisatva that accompanies and guides those who die during their voyage to paradise. However, in the tradition of the Esoteric Buddhism, especially in the sutra of the "Buddha of the Thousand Hands" (Chon Su kyong), which is the most popular sutra and the one most prayed by Korean women, Kwanum is presented as the mother of mercy and of compassion. These images of Kwanum give a deeply religious aura, an aura of faith, to Buddhist believers, at least as far as the popular religiosity is concerned.
After examining these images of Kwanum in the scriptures, I try to examine how devotion to Kwanum has evolved throughout history, from its beginning in India to its arrival in Korea. In this historical evolution, I give special importance to the process of transformation undergone by Kwanum: from asexual or neuter bodisatva, or even represented with male characteristics in India, where "she" is known as Avalokitesvara, "she" becomes a bodisatva with strongly feminine and maternal characteristics in China. I also analyze the process of divinization that Kwanum went through across history, a process that arrived at a concept of Kwanum as a divinity having enormous powers of salvation that go much beyond "her" character as a model, mediator or helper which is proper to all bodisatvas.
In my thesis, I make a detailed analysis of the historical evolution of Kwanum in the various historic eras of Korea. I end this section showing the most evident feminine characteristics through which Kwanum manifests "herself in several legends and tales of miracles which we can find in some existing historical documents and which go back especially to the era of the Three Kingdoms and to the time of Koryo. In those times, "Pekui Kwanum" was very popular (Kwanum with the white dress).
In many a legend told in the Samkukyusa (History of the Three Kingdoms) about Kwanum, "she" appears as a woman that offers her merciful and understanding love to all who are in need. "Her" maternal character is very much in evidence in all historical periods.
After analyzing the images of Kwanum, I examine the main images of Mary in the Catholic Scriptures. In the New Testament Mary is presented especially as the Mother of Jesus and the Mother of all Christians. In the apocryphal literature the ’divine’ character of Mary is more evident. Other important images that have been attributed to Mary through the history of the Church are those of "Virgin" and, especially in popular religiosity, the one of Mediatrix and Help of the Souls in Purgatory. Other titles attributed to Mary in her role of Co-redemptrix and Mediatrix are those of "Second Eve" and "Bride of Christ". Often she is also attributed the role of Protector and Patroness.
This last role is strongly characterized by regional elements, as for example in the case of Our Lady of Guadalupe. Also in this area of regional characteristics she is addressed in her role of Healer, Consoler and Helper of the Dying.
I finish this part of my thesis with a deeper analysis of how the maternal attitude of Mary was understood during the history of the Church. This characteristic of hers cannot be separated from her relationship with Jesus, as protective mother who suffers with her Son, "Mater Dolorosa".
The way of looking at Mary has gone through a long evolution in the History of the Church, not only at the official level, but also at the level of popular religiosity. As we look at this historical development of the devotion to Mary we can see a process of divinization of Mary, especially at the level of popular religiosity.
I also devote a section of my thesis to the evolution of the Marian devotion in Korea during the two hundred years of presence of the Catholic Church in that country. In it, I refer in a special way to the groups that are specifically dedicated to devotion to her. I conclude this chapter with an analysis of the feminine characteristics that have been attributed and have been particularly emphasized in Mary throughout history, and that have influenced the way of understanding the role of the woman in the Church and in society. This is due to the fact that Mary is often presented to the Christian woman as model of faith, and "used" in order to offer an image of the woman in whom the qualities of service, humility, obedience and submission to the will of God stand out. However, I take into consideration the more recent theological interpretations of the figure of Mary that have been influenced by feministic theology, which are doing a re-interpretation of Mary as model for women that is closer to the human reality and to the situation of suffering and oppression in which many women live.
In the second part of the thesis, I make a brief analysis of the position and role of the Korean woman who has faith, whether in Buddhism or in Christianity.
In order to concretely analyze the present situation and the role of the Korean woman in the life of the churches or of the temples, I present the historical development of the position of the woman in the Buddhist and the Christian tradition. I try to show how, historically, there has been a change from a position of equality between man and woman, proper to the charismatic beginnings of both religious traditions, towards a position of discrimination in what regards the woman, with the exclusion of the woman from the majority of the tasks of responsibility in both religions. Both Buddha and Christ have preached equality among all human beings. However, as the two religious traditions took on institutional forms and structured themselves under the influence of the sociocultural reality, the separation of the roles between man and woman grew, and the dominating class, the male, reinterpreted the doctrines of both traditions in order to justify its own dominating position and monopoly of power. This tradition has arrived at our times and continues to influence the position and the role of the woman in the two religious traditions.
The woman continues to have a role of helper and supporter in the life of the Church and of the Temple. Besides, this tradition has also brought women believers to express their experience of faith especially under the form of devotional practices. The purpose of the majority of women’s groups in the churches and in the temples is to perform the acts of devotion (especially to Mary and to Kwanum), and the service in the temple and in the church.
Rarely are women taken into consideration for the tasks of government or when important decisions are made, even if they are the great majority of the active faithful in the two religions.
During the 1990s, through the awareness favored by the feministic movement in society, a change has taken place within the two religions in Korea. Women demand the recognition of th«r role and of their status of great majority, and the return to the doctrines of equality among all human beings preached by Christ and Buddha.
The results of research in this Held
In the last part of my thesis, 1 analyze the results of my research directly in the field. I take into consideration especially the cultural and religious characteristics of the devotional practices to Mary and Kwanum of the Korean woman believer. In a particular way, I underline the influence that these practices have on family life and on the life of the society of the Korean woman. The analyses of these devotional practices concentrate themselves on those towards Mary and Kwanum, and on the way in which the believing women express these devotions.
In Korea, because the woman is the mother of the family, traditionally it is the woman that has the task of approaching divinity, or God, to intercede for the members of her family and ask for protection and aid. Especially in the moments of instability, of sickness, or when there are other problems, it is the woman, the mother, who has the task of approaching divinity to ask for intercession and protection. We can then say that the woman is considered responsible for the religious aspect of life in the family, and for its peace and happiness.
In the first chapter of this third section of my thesis, I put in evidence how the Korean woman and the devotions of maternal type are strictly connected with one another, and mutually influence one another.
I begin by analyzing the role of Kwanum and Mary as "mothers". Both the Buddhist and the Catholic believing women often describe Kwanum and Mary using the word "mother". In the case of Mary, Catholic tradition has a long history of identification of Mary as the Mother of Jesus and Mother of all believers. In the Buddhist tradition, this characteristic does not emerge very clearly. However, the Buddhist believer also very easily identifies the role of Kwanum with the role of a merciful and loving mother who is always ready to help and to respond to the needs of her children. We can consequently say that the Korean women took Kwanum and Mary as perfect models of their maternity.
Mary and Kwanum have been invested with many characteristics that are proper to the idea of "mother" that come from the traditional Korean culture. The traditional image of the Korean woman is the one of a mother: strong, persevering, patient, available to service and ready to sacrifice herself. Traditionally, the woman is seen as the persevering mother who builds up history through her children. While protecting, she keeps the family united, and is its guardian.
The idea of the woman as mother was even more accentuated by the Confucian ideology that identified the woman with the role of mother and limited her to the internal role of the house, while making the man responsible for the world outside. In this way of conceiving society, the woman, left alone by herself, loses her importance. She will get it back only when she becomes part of the formation of a family and is able to assure its survival by giving birth to descendents. As a "wife" or daughter-in-law, the woman enjoys peace and family stability only when she becomes "mother". The believing women too, whether they be Buddhist or Catholic, express this traditional way of seeing the woman in the way they view Mary and Kwanum. Asked how they see Mary as a woman, the greatest majority of the Catholic women immediately define Mary as the Mother of Jesus, spouse of Joseph, guardian of the family of Nazareth. But above all, they emphasize the "obedience" of Mary and see her as a model of their own obedience to God and, consequently, to their husbands and children.
The Buddhist believing women emphasize the maternal character of patience, of mercy and of Kwanum’s capacity of accepting everything and everyone, whom they take as model for their relations within the family as the mother who takes care of her husband and children with a "heart similar to the heart of Kwanum". The woman must be able to assume the sufferings and the pains of the family so that the family may live in happiness.
Another aspect that comes out of the interviews concerns the feminine character of Mary and of Kwanum. In both cases, the strong emphasis on their maternal character was detrimental to their femininity, which is almost completely denied. Practically, they are looked upon as asexual. In the case of Kwanum, her role of provider of children is very important. Many believing women, in their prayers, pray for the possibility of giving birth to a son.
Asked about the feminine character of Mary, Catholic women speak of her as a very special woman, more supernatural than human. Practically, her quality as a woman is always placed in relation to her role as mother. Catholic women too often ask Mary to give them a son, so as to assure themselves of a position in their husband’s family.
This allows me to conclude that devotion to Mary and Kwanum is deeply influenced by the traditional Confucian vision of the woman and of its patriarcal concept of family. 
Another aspect that must be emphasized in these two devotions is the insistence with which the intercession of Mary and Kwanum is asked for their own family, insistence which has a strongly egocentric character. It reflects a new tendency in Korean society. The passage fffom a prevalently agricultural society to an industrial and urban society has produced a change also in the mode of conceptualizing the family itself. Concern is now centered on a nucleus family rather than on an extended family or a group. Thus, prayers and devotional practices have mostly as their objective to get favors for one’s own family without thinking about other families or about other situations of suffering. This happens even if both religions, when defining Mary and Kwanum, always say that they are mothers who welcome everyone without distinction and answer the prayers of all those who suffer. There is a dichotomy between practice and theory.
Another characteristic element of the devotion to Kwanum and Mary is its strict relationship with a moral behavior of "service and care". This behavior is seen especially within the family, and also in the sphere of the church and of the temple. In the cultural Korean atmosphere, this morality of service and care can easily be connected to the idea of "filial piety" (Hyodo). In Korean Buddhism, "filial piety" is bolstered by some of the most popular texts dedicated to Kwanum (Kwanseum Bosal, Wuangseng, Pumkyong). In Catholicism, this filial and ethical piety of service goes very well with the spirituality of the "Holy Family", which helps to reinforce the role of service and care of the family that belongs to the woman. However, many Korean women practice this ethic of service beyond the limits of their own family, such as in parishes and in temples. The most active groups in the temples are usually made up of groups dedicated to Kwanum or Mary (eg., Group Kwanum, Legion of Mary...).
But even in these groups of predominant feminine membership, the roles of authority are in the hands of men. One of the characteristics of these groups, especially the Catholic ones, is their militant character. As a result they are very active in attracting new members to their churches.
In the Confucian model that gives form to Korean society, the ethics of service has been used by women to attain their fulfillment and be given just consideration within the family and in society. As the proverb says: "Behind a successful man, there always is a good mother". The Korean mother looks for her fulfillment and her own prestige in the success of the members of her family, especially of her children. Albeit unconsciously, devotion to Mary and to Kwanum have helped to strengthen this idea of women.
The religious experience of the Korean woman
^In the thesis, I next examine the religious experience of the Korean woman and her faith in the saving powers of Kwanum and Mary. Both these figures are invested with great saving power. The believing woman approaches them with the deep trust of being liberated from her situations of suffering and need. This saving experience is not lived only during particular moments of prayer or during religious ceremonies, but it goes on in the daily life of the believer. The search for the help of Mary and Kwanum is a constant in the daily family work. Within the family, the woman becomes a "priestess" who feels Mary’s and Kwanum’s closeness. These factors have proved that members from both religions attribute a divine character to Kwanum, who is considered as the one who can free from suffering, and to Mary, who is considered as the one who saves from sin and evil.
The saving character of Mary and Kwanum shows itself even more clearly in the several types of prayers that Catholics and Buddhist feminine believers address to them. We can divide these prayers into five different types: Emotionl prayers, which express the affective feelings of the faithful towards these divine figures; prayers for social order, for the protection of the whole community and of the nation, asking that unexpected calamities will not take place; prayers asking for forgiveness; prayers for salvation, especially for deceased family members; instrumental prayers to ask for the solution of the problems of daily life, especially family problems.
Another religious experience which is lived by the majority of the faithful of both religions is the one of the "revelations" which they receive in dreams from Mary and from Kwanum. A good number of faithful that I interviewed have manifested that they feel the presence of Mary or Kwanum during the whole day, during the various daily activities that they perform. Furthermore, when some piece of bad news reaches a family, or when some danger threatens the same, Mary and Kwanum appear to them in dreams, and advise them, or warn them against the impending danger. The dreams become a religious experience which helps the women to regain strength in moments of crisis. Through the dreams, a connection is created between the natural and the supernatural sphere. These dreams are strongly characterized" by cultural elements which are combined with those religious elements proper to their particular religious tradition.
These experiences of "mystical" character are often associated in the life of the believers with a process of purification and conversion. Mary and Kwanum help, intercede and are models in this process of purification. As far as the Catholic women are concerned, this aspect of purification and conversion makes frequent reference to the virginity of Mary. This fact in some cases brings the person to a negative vision of her own sexuality and condition as a woman. According to the traditional Korean culture, the sexuality of the woman is seen as a "contamination" that needs purification. This way of thinking has made many women try to overcome this negative vision of sexuality through an intense devotion to Mary, or to Kwanum, who are considered pure, transcendent of the human condition and, in a certain sense, asexual.
Another aspect that reflects the salvific character of Mary and Kwanum is the important role that they occupy in the experience of pain and death. Devotion to Kwanum and Mary has a great influence in the overcoming of pain (Han) by the women. It also has an important role in aiding the dead to enter Heaven. In this way, the salvific character of Mary and Kwanum has the effect of joining together both the living and the dead. This is a fact of great importance in Korea. It is not possible to separate the world of the living from the world of the dead. The ancestors are considered an active part of their families, and they exercise a strong influence on their members. Devotion to Mary and Kwanum helps create a harmonious relation between living and dead, and it also aids in alleviating the pain in the heart of the believers and of their ancestors. 
Similarity and difference
The first common characteristic that is shared by both Mary and Kwanum is that they are considered perfect mothers insofar as they represent, in both religions, the ideal of "mother", a mother who ransoms and frees the believers from their suffering and who always answers the prayers of her devout people. However, the maternal character is always there in the case of Mary, but not always is it apparent in the case of Kwanum since the latter sometimes assumes diverse aspects according to the needs of those who ask for her help. The Korean believing woman expects Kwanum, and Mary, to respond to her suffering, especially to the suffering as a mother of a family, by offering consolation and liberation. From this hope, the salvific character of both devotions is born. However, reading the scriptures and the results of my field research, I feel that the power of saving and of liberating is more accentuated in the devotion to Kwanum. In the case of Mary, the role of mediation before God is more emphasized. She intercedes with God so that the believer may be forgiven all her sins, and be freed from suffering.
Another difference lies in the fact that Kwanum is considered more as an ideal, and supernatural, mother, while Mary is a mother who is closer to the reality of the woman. Mary is the Mother of a specific man, Jesus. Mary presents herself as the ideal model of mothers, especially in the mother-son relationship, which is of fundamental importance in Korean society. Mary is the model of mother who gives everything for her son, even her life. In this the Marian devotion serves to reinforce the Confucian image of the mother who offers her own suffering for her son. Kwanum was not an historical mother, nevertheless in the legend attributed to her the most outstanding characteristic that can be noted is her filial devotion.
Another element that is common to both devotions is the fact that the Korean woman lives her daily life as a "mystical" experience that is strongly characterized by mysterious elements which express themselves through dreams and feelings of real union with these elements. Such a union assists the woman to free herself from the suffering and resentment that has accumulated in her heart. This union is seen in a different light by the Buddhist and the Catholic women. The former try to become one with Kwanum and to follow the road of the Bodisatvas. The latter, more than becoming one with Mary, try to live as Mary did and to obey God as Mary did.
Both devotions emphasize considerably the idea of pain. Both Kwanum and Mary have become models of endurance of pain. But at the same time they are also sources of salvation and liberation from this situation.
Although, doctrinally speaking, these two figures do not have the power of forgiving, or of liberating from sins that have been committed, practically the two are seen in the popular religiosity as having the power of doing it. This could be explained by the fact that the believer woman, as mother in a family, feels the responsibility of healing the errors that have been committed by the other members of the family.
Both devotions reinforce the negative vision of feminine sexuality transmitted by Confucianism. However, beginning in the 1980s, a new current of young women-theologians of both religious arenas have initiated the process of reinterpretation of the figures of Kwanum and Mary: They are seen as models of liberation of the woman.
In the conclusion of my thesis, I refer to some points on devotion to Mary and Kwanum that are the object of today’s interpretation, in the perspective that they may really become a source of liberation and consolation for their respective faithful.
I first present a new interpretation of the ethic of service through which the woman finds her own fulfillment and identity. I emphasize also some elements of differentiation between the popular religiosity and the official religion, and how the latter has been dominated by man, while the popular religiosity has traditionally been considered inferior and "the affair of women".
I also present some questions and possible lines of research on the devotion to Kwanum and Mary that were not treated in this work and could be developed in the future.